Many beliefs, festivals, and religious ceremonies throughout history have been closely connected to human economic and survival needs, such as ensuring fertility, abundant crops, larger herds, more children to assist with farming, protecting the land, and strengthening families and tribes in times of conflict.
Toynbee notes that “the mother is humanity’s oldest artistic subject.” Among the most notable artifacts uncovered in prehistoric excavations are clay or stone figurines, either abstract or realistic, designed with a focus on female characteristics. Archaeologists once referred to these statues as “Venus” figurines. However, since the Roman goddess’s name could not fully capture their significance, they are now more broadly identified as fertility goddesses.
Recent studies, highlighting their differences and focusing on the meaning and function of these figurines across various places and eras, have shed new light on their significance. By modern aesthetic standards, these figurines may seem less concerned with beauty, yet from the perspective of their creators, they were considered beautiful. Many lack facial features, but the emphasis on feminine forms is clear.
It appears that prehistoric peoples created these figurines to connect with sources of fertility power, often embodied in goddess figures, to gain their favor or support. They were offered in ceremonial displays or buried alongside the deceased. This practice continued into historic periods, evolving alongside new religions and ceremonies, but often in a more elaborate and adorned form.
Across agricultural societies, a close connection can be observed between the fertility of the land and the reproductive capacity of women. In these traditions, the sky often symbolizes the male generative force, contributing to the growth and productivity of crops.
Some cultures believed that infertile women could have a negative impact on agricultural success, whereas the presence of a pregnant woman was thought to enhance crop abundance. Anthropologists argue that early human societies may have been initially dominated by women, and that matrilineal systems represent a remnant of this ancient matriarchal structure.
Part One: Goddesses of the Ancient World
The first part of this study focuses on fertility goddesses throughout Asia, some of whom continue to be worshiped today. Because understanding the deities of each region requires extensive study of texts and archaeological evidence, this overview highlights only a portion of the available knowledge about each area.
Asia
1.1 Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Syria
The earliest female figurines in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and western Iran date back to the Neolithic period. Figurines representing male forms from this era are extremely rare, with most archaeological sites yielding little to no trace of them. In contrast, female figurines were produced in large quantities, reflecting a variety of local styles and techniques.
The people of this region were among the first communities to transition from a Paleolithic lifestyle based on food gathering and hunting to settled village life, simultaneously developing agriculture and animal husbandry.
In Morbit, north of the Euphrates (circa 8500–1000 BCE), archaeologists have uncovered five female figurines—one made of stone and four of baked clay. Figurines from the same period have also been found at Gilgal and Nahal Oren in Palestine. Similar examples have been discovered at Shagar Bazaar in Syria (circa 6000–5000 BCE).
The goddess Nana, an ancient lunar deity worshiped by the people of Ur, bears a name that in many languages signifies “mother.” In Persian, this term evolved into Naneh, and similar linguistic traces can be found in several other languages worldwide.
Sumerian and Ancient Near Eastern Goddesses
Aruru: The Sumerian mother goddess who created Enkidu from clay.
Ninlil: Goddess of the air.
Nanše: Mother goddess of poetry, also linked to fishing and justice.
Geštinanna: Goddess of wine.
Siduri Sabitu: In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the wise mountain-dwelling guardian of the Tree of Life.
Another major Sumerian mother goddess is Inanna, depicted standing atop a lion. She symbolized life, fertility, and plant growth. Her descent to the underworld to find her beloved Dumuzi was associated with seasonal cycles and the renewal of life. Each spring, their marriage was celebrated in Isin to awaken nature’s dormant forces.
Astarte, equivalent to Inanna and the Assyrian Ishtar, was worshiped by the Phoenicians and Palestinians. She governed fertility-giving rains and represented Venus and the Moon. Sometimes viewed as a virgin goddess, other times as a mother goddess aiding pregnant women, she too was believed to descend to the underworld in search of her consort, Baal.
- Anatolia
Excavations at Nevali Çori (8th millennium BCE) uncovered 169 clay figurines, mostly female, including two with children and eight depicting pregnant women. A notable figurine from Çayönü features two female heads, possibly symbolizing the miracle of childbirth. Repeated depictions of women in prehistoric Anatolian caves suggest they were seen as sacred, life-giving, and symbols of fertility.
Neolithic figurines from Hacilar often show standing pregnant women with hands on their abdomens. Most are robust, either standing or reclining, and decorated with painted lines, likely reflecting traditional body adornment practices.
- India
Early Indian settlements produced mother goddess figurines, later worshiped by the Aryans. Excavations at Mohenjo-daro revealed clay mother goddess figurines and a bronze statuette of a dancing nude girl. Similar finds appear at Mehrgarh in present-day Pakistan. In the Rigveda, the earth goddess Prithvi-Mata (“First Mother”) is honored.
The three major Hindu deities—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—each have consorts essential to their divine functions. Saraswati provides knowledge for creation, Lakshmi supports Vishnu in sustaining the world, and Kali aids Shiva in destruction and renewal. An 18th-century depiction shows the three gods alongside their consorts. Saraswati is associated with knowledge and art, often depicted playing a sitar; Lakshmi embodies beauty and prosperity; and Shiva’s consort combines destructive power with benevolence.
1.4 China and the Philippines
In Chinese mythology, the goddess Nuwa restores order to the world after the first chaos. She creates the first human from yellow clay, and subsequent humans are formed when she dips a rope into the clay and lets the droplets fall.
Guan Yin emerges from a lotus flower, while Fenghuang is a goddess of fire. Mazu protects the seas, guiding sailors and fishermen. Hang Ou is the ancient moon goddess, and Zhi He represents the sun. Lakapati is the goddess of fertility and is celebrated as one of the kindest deities.
In Philippine mythology, three heavenly sisters—Mayari, Tala, and Hanan—rule over the moon, stars, and dawn, respectively.
1.5 Japan and Korea
In Japanese mythology, Amaterasu, also called Ōmi Kami, is the sun goddess and benevolent protector of humanity. Izanami, with Izanagi, forms the divine creator pair and is considered the mother of the earth. Tsukuyomi, the moon deity, is their daughter and Amaterasu’s sister.
Benzaiten governs literature, music, wealth, and joy, often shown playing the biwa, and is associated with the sea as one of the Seven Gods of Fortune. Ukemochi, the food goddess, creates horses, cattle, silkworms, millet, and rice from her body. Other important goddesses include Kishijoten, a goddess of fortune, and Kuanon, a widely revered deity.
In Korean mythology, the mother goddess Mago gives birth to Gonghee and Sohee, whose descendants inhabit the heavens. Eopsin protects wealth and the household, while Samsin oversees childbirth, and Susamsin governs the birth of livestock.
Part Two: Goddesses of Ancient Iran
The abundance of fertility figurines in ancient Iran reflects both the worldview of early inhabitants and their persistent concern over nature’s forces. Women were regarded as mediators, channeling celestial blessings into earthly life.
This study adopts a broad perspective on Iranian goddesses. For clarity, the artifacts are categorized into seven approximate periods: Neolithic, Chalcolithic (Copper Age), Bronze, Iron, Achaemenid, Parthian-Selucid, and Sassanian. While this framework is based on museum collections, it does not fully account for stylistic continuities.
Before exploring these periods, it is important to note the presence of goddesses in Elamite and Avestan texts.
- Iranian Goddesses in Historical Texts
- Elamite Goddesses
The Elamites worshiped several goddesses, among whom Pinikir, one of the oldest from the 3rd millennium BCE, was considered the mother of all gods. Her name appears at the head of divine assemblies in early inscriptions, and her worship persisted throughout the Elamite period.
She was the consort of the god Shimut and protector of pregnant women, with her sanctuary at Hupshan. Nin Khursag, the mountain goddess, had her shrine in Susa beside Inshushinak’s temple. Inshi Karab’s sanctuary was near Chogha Zanbil’s northwest gate, while Shiyashum, guardian of the divine palace, received offerings from King Untash-Gal. Naruteh (Narvandi), frequently mentioned in inscriptions, and Niyarsina, sister of Kirisha, also had dedicated temples.
- Avestan Goddesses
In Avestan mythology, Ashi (Ashi Vahi) and Anahita are linked to fertility and prosperity. Ashi, praised in Yasht 17, protects young people ready for marriage and animals during mating, while bringing beauty, fortune, and household abundance. She is described in Yasht 13, verse 107 as:
“Ashi, good, beautiful, magnificent, in the form of a fair young maiden, tall, upright, of heavenly origin.”
Al-Biruni notes that in Khwarezm, she was worshiped as Arjokhi. Another goddess, Parendi, is mentioned alongside her among the seven Haitis.
Yasht 5, known as the Aban Yasht, is dedicated to Ardvi Sura Anahita, the goddess of waters, to whom the Turanians most often turned in times of war. Offerings were made to her by rivers, and it seems that she was originally regarded as the deity of the Syr Darya River.
In Yasht 17, verses 55 and 56, Ashi laments the disrespect shown by the Turanians—an echo of her rivalry with the ancient goddess of fertility, Anahita. However, due to the deep-rooted nature of Anahita’s worship, her cult prevailed. By the Sasanian era, Anahita had become the most prominent Iranian goddess, while Ashi was scarcely known outside a limited spiritual context.
Ardvi Sura Anahita, meaning “the strong, immaculate waters,” is described as the source of all earthly waters and the origin of fertility. She purifies the seed of men, cleanses the wombs of women, and sanctifies the milk in mothers’ breasts. The Aban Yasht portrays her as “the glorious one, renowned everywhere, possessing a thousand lakes and a thousand rivers, each stretching forty days’ ride for a swift horseman, riding a chariot drawn by four white horses that bring rain, snow, and hail.”
These vivid descriptions suggest that statues of the goddess played a role in her worship. According to Berossus, Artaxerxes II erected her statues in Babylon, Damascus, Hamadan, Sardis, and Susa.
